Special fields of psychology

existence since 1960; its abstracts are arranged under broad subject

heading which include psychology, psychopathology, psychiatry, social

behaviour of groups.

12. Psychology, religion and phenomenology

The long traditional links between religions and psychology go back to

classical antiquity. They received much impetus in the middle ages and

again during the many periods of religious and political fervour that

stirred Europe during the past six centuries, reaching various

climactic peaks through seers, visionaries and martyrs. Every one of

these advocated social reforms on earth to attain a new heaven, or

threatened new hells should the reforms not be adopted. All were

persecuted by the established religious or political power, or both;

then as now, the defenders of the status quo almost invariably accused

the challengers of being madmen or psychopaths. It is all a matter of

firmly held beliefs uttered from pulpits,chancery ballconies and soap

boxes as well as printed in broadsides, pamphlets, or large books, or

smeared on the walls of houses with a wide brush

13. Parapsychology

Psychical Research, also parapsychology, scientific investigation of

alleged phenomena and events that appear to be unaccounted for by

conventional physical, biological, or psychological theories.

Parapsychologists study two kinds of so-called psi phenomena:

extrasensory perception (ESP), or the acquiring of information through

nonsensory means; and psychokinesis (PK), or the ability to affect

objects at a distance by means other than known physical forces.

Psychical research also investigates the survival of personality after

death and deals with related topics such as trance mediumship,

hauntings, apparitions, poltergeists (involuntary PK), and out-of-body

experiences. The name of this field of investigation is taken from the

Society of Psychical Research, founded in England in 1882 and in the

U.S. in 1884; both groups continue to publish their findings today.

Historical Development

Among the early achievements of the British group was the investigation of

hypnotism, a field later claimed by medicine and psychology. The society

also investigated phenomena produced at spiritualistic seances and the

claims of spiritualism. Psi phenomena to be investigated were classified as

either physical or mental. The physical effects, or PK, include the

movement of physical objects or an influence upon material processes by the

apparent direct action of mind over matter. The mental manifestations, or

ESP, include telepathy, which is the direct transmission of messages,

emotions, or other subjective states from one person to another without the

use of any sensory channel of communication; clairvoyance, meaning direct

responses to a physical object or event without any sensory contact; and

precognition, or a noninferential response to a future event.

One of the first specific investigations in the field was the examination,

by the British chemist and physicist Sir William Crookes, of the phenomena

produced at seances held by the Scottish medium Daniel Dunglas Home. Home,

a physical medium, held his seances in full light, and the validity of the

paranormal phenomena he produced has never been successfully impugned. The

contents of verbal utterances by mental mediums were also studied.

Significant early research involved the American medium Leonore E. Piper,

whose apparent psychical gifts were discovered by the American philosopher

and psychologist William James. Other lines of investigation dealt with

psychic experiences that seemed to occur spontaneously in everyday life,

and involved the controlled testing of persons with apparently outstanding

ESP abilities.

Rhine’s Laboratory

In the U.S., one of the earliest groups to become active in parapsychology

was the Parapsychology Laboratory of North Carolina’s Duke University,

which began publishing literature in the 1930s. There, under the direction

of the American psychologist Joseph Banks Rhine, methods were developed

that advanced psychical investigations from the correlations of isolated

and often vague anecdotal reports to a mathematical study based on

statistics and the laws of probability.

In the experiments dealing with ESP, Rhine and his associates used mainly a

deck of 25 cards, somewhat similar to ordinary playing cards but bearing on

their faces only five designs: star, circle, cross, square, and wavy lines.

If a subject correctly named 5 out of the shuffled deck of 25 concealed

cards, that was considered pure chance. Certain subjects, however,

consistently named 6 out of 10 cards correctly; so Rhine and his associates

concluded that this demonstrated the existence of ESP. In their experiments

on PK, the group used ordinary dice that were thrown from a cup against a

wall or tumbled in mechanically driven cages. In these tests, an apparent

relationship was found between the mental effort of subjects to “will”

particular faces of the dice to appear upward and the percentage of times

the faces actually did so. The results obtained in many individual

experiments and in the research as a whole, Rhine and his workers decided,

could not reasonably be attributed to the fluctuations of chance.

Rhine retired from Duke University in 1965 and transferred his research to

a privately endowed organization, the Foundation for Research on the Nature

of Man. Since that time parapsychology has become better established in

other universities, as illustrated by the offering of credit courses in the

subject in increasing numbers. In addition, independent research centers

continue to be founded, among them the American Society for Psychical

Research, with headquarters in New York City. The Parapsychological

Association, an international group of scholars actively working in the

field, was formed in 1957 and was granted affiliation status by the

American Association for the Advancement of Science in 1969.

Criticisms

Although parapsychologists are increasingly employing and refining

scientific methodologies for their observations, one of the chief

criticisms of their work is that experiments in psi phenomena can rarely be

duplicated. Under the most rigorous laboratory controls, for example,

experiments on phenomena such as out-of-body experiences—in which

individuals demonstrate an apparent ability to locate their center of

perception outside their bodies—indicate that even reputable psychics are

rarely able to duplicate earlier, high-scoring performances. The scores of

such individuals, in fact, tend to drop to the level of probability the

more the experiment is repeated. Nonparapsychologists find psi experiments

even more difficult to repeat, and a majority of conventional scientists

dismiss parapsychology findings as unscientific or at best inconclusive.

A similar criticism is based on the claim by most parapsychologists that

psi phenomena occur beyond the law of causality, which is one of the

fundamental premises of any scientific investigation. Indeed, results of

psi experiments often turn out to be far from or even contradictory to the

original predictions. Parapsychologists admit that psi phenomena fall so

far outside ordinary comprehension that they are often unsure whether an

ESP event or a PK event has occurred; Rhine himself stated that one kind of

event could not occur without the other. Because these phenomena are

difficult to define or isolate when they appear to happen—and, further,

because the phenomena occur only for a select group of observers—most

scientists think that psi investigations fall far short of the rules of

objectivity required by the scientific method. As a result, many

parapsychologists, rather than trying to demonstrate the reality of psi

phenomena to a skeptical scientific community, have turned to exploring how

such phenomena might actually work; they even have drawn on quantum physics

for empirical support. Some workers in the field object to the very notion

of repeatability of experiments as foreign to the nature of psi phenomena;

they consider the scientific method, as currently understood, too

restrictive a formulation for exploring the unknown.

14. Industrial Psychology

Psychologists in industry serve many roles. In the personnel office,

they assist in hiring through testing and interviewing, in developing

training programs, in evaluating employees, and in maintaining good

employee relations and communications. Some psychologists do research

for marketing and advertising departments. Others work in the field of

human engineering, which involves designing machines and workplaces to

make them more suitable for people.

School Psychology

Psychologists in the educational system give most of their attention to

counseling and guidance. They help students plan their school and work

careers. Educational psychologists deal with the processes of teaching and

learning; for example, they may investigate new methods of teaching

children how to read or to do mathematics, in order to make classroom

learning more effective.

Clinical Psychology

Many applied psychologists work in hospitals, clinics, and private

practice, providing therapy to people who need psychological help. By

testing and interviewing, they classify their patients and engage in all

forms of treatment that are not exclusively medical, such as drug therapy

and surgery.

A special contribution of clinical psychology is behavior therapy, which is

based on principles of learning and conditioning. Through behavior therapy,

clinical psychologists try to change the behavior of the patient and to

remove unpleasant or undesirable symptoms by arranging the proper

conditioning experiences or the proper rewards for desired behavior. A

patient with a phobia about dogs, for example, might be “desensitized” by a

series of rewards given for closer and closer contact with dogs in

nonthreatening situations. In other forms of therapy, the psychologist may

try to help patients better understand their problems and find new ways of

dealing with them.

Vocabulary

Contents

Physiological psychology - психофизиология. Изучает психику в единстве с ее

нейрофизиологическим субстратом - рассматривает соотношение мозга и

психики.

Psychoanalysis - психоанализ. Основывается на идее о том, что поведение

определяется не

только и не столько сознанием, сколько бессознательным.

Behaviourism - бихевиоризм. Направление в американской психологии ХХ в.,

отрицающее

сознание как предмет научного исследования и сводящее психику к различным

формам

поведения, понятого как совокупность организма на стимулы внешней среды.

Gestalt psychology - гештальт-психология. Программа изучения психики с

точки зрения

целостных структур - гештальтов, первичным по отношению к своим

компонентам.

Cognition - когнитивная психология. Исходит из того, что любая ассоциация

между стимулом и

реакцией создается сначала в мозге.

Tests and Measurements - тесты

Development psychology - возрастная психология. Отрасль психологии,

изучающая закономерности этапов психического развития и формирования

личности в связи с возрастом - на протяжении онтогенеза человека от

рождения до старости

Social psychology - социальная психология. Изучает психологические

особенности и

закономерности поведения и деятельности людей, обусловленные их включением

в группы

социальные и существованием в них, а также психологические характеристики

самих этих

групп.

Psychiatry and mental health - психиатрия и психическое здоровье. Область

клинической

медицины, изучающая психические болезни

Forensic psychology - судебная психология. Область психологии юридической,

изучающая круг

вопросов, относящихся к судопроизводству.

Сriminology - криминология.

Рhenomenology - феноменология.

Parapsychology- парапсихология (психотроника). Именование гипотез и

представлений, относящихся к психическим явлениям, объяснение коих не имеет

строгого научного обоснования.

Industrial Psychology - индустриальная психология.

2. Physiological psychology

Perception - восприятие

Certain skills - определенные навыки

Innate - врожденный

Perception - восприятие

Nervous system - нервная система

Circulatory system - гормональная регуляция

Central nervous system - центральная нервная система

Spinal cord - спинной мозг

Peripheral nervous system - периферическая нервная система

Glands- железа

Muscles - мышца

Sensory - чувствительный

Neuron - нейрон

Somatic system - соматическая система

Autonomic system - вегетативная система

Sympathetic division - симпатический отдел

Parasympathetic division - парасимпатический отдел

Knee-jerk reflex - рефлекс коленный (пателлярный)

3. Psychoanalysis

Unconscious - бессознательное

Conscious - сознательное

Latent dream - тайные (латентные) мысли

Manifest dream - явные мысли

Instinctual drives - основные инстинкты

Infantile sexuality - инфантильная сексуальность

Adult sexuality - взрослая сексуальность

Oral, anal and genital zones - оральная, анальная и фаллическая стадии

Oedipal period - эдипов комплекс

Структурные компоненты души:

Id - Ид (оно) “содержит все унаследованное, все, что есть при рождении. Ид

резервуар энергии для всей личности, содержание Ид бессознательно

Ego - эго - та часть психического аппарата, которая находится в контакте с

внешней реальностью. Развивается из Ид по мере того, как ребенок начинает

осознавать свою личность. Эго защищает Ид.

Superego - суперэго. Развивается и Эго. Служит судьей или цензором Эго.

Thinking - мышление

Motor control - моторные контроль

Defense mechanisms - защитные механизмы

Repression - подавление

Projection - проекция

Reaction formation - реактивные образование. Явная и обычно бессознательная

инверсия желания

Anxiety - тревожность

Analytical psychology - аналитическая психология

Libido - либидо - половое влечение

Personal unconscious - личное бессознательное

Collective unconscious - коллективное бессознательное

Archetypes - архетипы. Психические структуры, формы без собственного

содержания, которые организуют и канализируют психологический материал.

Persona - персона. Это то, какими мы представляем себя миру

Neurosis - невроз

Primary trauma of birth - первичная травма детства

Mental, emotional and sensory powers - ментальная, эмоциональная и

чувственная сила

Situation neuroses - ситуационный невроз

Character neuroses - невротик

Complex unconscious fantasies in children - комплекс бессознательных

фантазий в детстве

Death instinct - инстинкт смерти. Под ним понимаются присущие индивиду -

как правило,

бессознательные - тенденции к саморазрушению и возврату в неорганическое

состояние.

Depressive position - депрессивное состояние

Paranoid position - параноидальное состояние

7. Gestalt psychology

Associationism - ассоциативная психология

8. Cognition psychology

Attention - внимание

Perception - восприятие

Memory - память

Reasoning - мотивация

Judgment - суждение

Imagining - воображение

Thinking - мышление

Speech - речь

Psycholinguistics - психолингвистика. Научная дисциплина, изучающая

обусловленность процессов речи и ее восприятия структурой соответствующего

языка, или языка вообще.

Intelligence - интеллект

7. Tests and Measurements

Achievement tests - тест достижений

Aptitude tests - тест на профпригодность

Intellegence tests - тест умственных способностей

Verbal abilities - способности на восприятие вербального (знакового)

материала

Infant intelligence tests - тесты на определение уровня интеллекта детей

Interest inventories - опросники профориентации

Objective Personality tests - объективные качества личности

Social extroversion or depression - социальные экстроверсия и интроверсия

Personality types - психотипы

Projective techniques - Проективные тесты

Validity - валидность. Указывает, что именно тест измеряет и насколько

хорошо он это делает.

Criterion-related validity - критериально-связывающая валидность

Construct validity - конструктивная валидность

9. Social psychology

Emotions - эмоции

Desires - желания

Social Affiliation - социальная аффилиация (стремление быть в обществе

других людей)

Influence - влияние

10. Psychiatry and mental health

Patterns - образ жизни

Depressive disorders - депрессия

Organic psychoses - органический психоз. Глубокие расстройства психики,

психической деятельности; проявляются в нарушении отражения реального мира,

возможности его познания, изменении поведения и отношения к окружающему.

13. Parapsychology

Extrasensory perception (ESP) - экстрасенсорное восприятие

Psychokinesis (PK) - психокинез

Trance mediumship, hauntings, poltergeists (involuntary PK) - трансовый

медиумизм, телепатия, полтергейст

Out-of-body experience - опыт вне телесного сознания

Hypnotism - гипноз (техника воздействия на индивида путем фокализации его

внимания с целью сузить поле сознания и подчинить его влиянию,, контролю

внешнего агента - гипнотизера, внушения коего гипнотизируемый будет

выполнять.

LITERATURE

1. Borchardt D.H. How to find out in Psychology. Pergamon Press 1984

2. Stedman`s concise Medical dictionary. First Webster`s New World Edition

1987.

3. Encarta Encyclopedia.1996

4. Никошкова Е.В. Англо-русский словарь по психологии. М: РУССО, ИП РАН,

1998

5. Ривкин В.Л., Морозов Н.В. Русско-английский медицинский словарь-

справочник с толкованиями. М: РУССО, 1996

6. Словарь практического психолога. Минск: Харвест, 1998

7. Хрестоматия по психологии личности. Самара: Издательский Дом “Бахрах”,

1996

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